In histology Histology is the study of the microscopic anatomy of cells and tissues of plants and animals. It is performed by examining a thin slice (section) of tissue under a light microscope or electron microscope. The ability to visualize or differentially identify microscopic structures is frequently enhanced through the use of histological stains, adipose tissue or body fat or just fat is loose connective tissue Connective tissue is a form of fibrous tissue.. It is one of the four types of tissue in traditional classifications composed of adipocytes Adipocytes, also known as lipocytes and fat cells, are the cells that primarily compose adipose tissue, specialized in storing energy as fat. It is technically composed of roughly only 80% fat; fat in its solitary state exists in the liver and muscles. Adipose tissue is derived from lipoblasts muscle: Myoblast → Myocyte · Satellite cell · Tendon cell · Myocardiocyte. Its main role is to store energy In physics, energy is a quantity that can be assigned to every particle, object, and system of objects as a consequence of the state of that particle, object or system of objects. Different forms of energy include kinetic, potential, thermal, gravitational, sound, elastic, light, and electromagnetic energy. The forms of energy are often named in the form of fat Fats consist of a wide group of compounds that are generally soluble in organic solvents and largely insoluble in water. Chemically, fats are generally triesters of glycerol and fatty acids. Fats may be either solid or liquid at room temperature, depending on their structure and composition. Although the words "oils", "fats",, although it also cushions and insulates The term thermal insulation can refer to materials used to reduce the rate of heat transfer, or the methods and processes used to reduce heat transfer. Heat energy can be transferred by conduction, convection, radiation or by actual movement of material from one location to another. For the purposes of this discussion only the first three the body. Obesity Obesity is a medical condition in which excess body fat has accumulated to the extent that it may have an adverse effect on health, leading to reduced life expectancy and/or increased health problems. Body mass index , a measurement which compares weight and height, defines people as overweight (pre-obese) when their BMI is between 25 kg/m2 and 30 or being overweight Overweight is generally defined as having more body fat than is optimally healthy. Being overweight is a common condition, especially where food supplies are plentiful and lifestyles are sedentary. As much as 64% of the United States adult population is considered either overweight or obese, and this percentage has increased over the last four in humans and most animals does not depend on body weight but on the amount of body fat—to be specific, adipose tissue. Two types of adipose tissue exist: white adipose tissue White adipose tissue or white fat is one of the two types of adipose tissue found in mammals. The other kind of adipose tissue is brown adipose tissue) (WAT) and brown adipose tissue Brown adipose tissue or brown fat is one of two types of fat or adipose tissue (the other being white adipose tissue) found in mammals. It is especially abundant in newborns and in hibernating mammals. Its primary function is to generate body heat in animals or newborns that do not shiver. In contrast to white adipocytes (fat cells), which contain (BAT). Adipose tissue also serves as an important endocrine In physiology, the endocrine system is a system of glands, each of which secretes a type of hormone into the bloodstream to regulate the body. The endocrine system is an information signal system like the nervous system. Hormones regulate many functions of an organism, including mood, growth and development, tissue function, and metabolism. The organ^[1] by producing hormones A hormone is a chemical released by a cell in one part of the body, that sends out messages that affect cells in other parts of the organism. Only a small amount of hormone is required to alter cell metabolism. It is essentially a chemical messenger that transports a signal from one cell to another. All multicellular organisms produce hormones; such as leptin Leptin is a 16 kDa protein hormone that plays a key role in regulating energy intake and energy expenditure, including appetite and metabolism. It is one of the most important adipose derived hormones. The Ob(Lep) gene (Ob for obese, Lep for leptin) is located on chromosome 7 in humans, resistin Resistin is a cysteine-rich protein secreted by adipose tissue of mice and rats. In other mammals, at least primates, pigs and dogs, resistin is secreted by immune and epithelial cells. Resistin is also known as CEBPE regulated myeloid-specific secreted cysteine-rich protein precursor 1 , found in inflammatory zone 3 (FIZZ3), or "adipocyte-, and the cytokine Cytokines are any of a number of small proteins that are secreted by specific cells of the immune system and glial cells, which carry signals locally between cells, and thus have an effect on other cells. They are a category of signaling molecules that are used extensively in cellular communication. They are proteins, peptides, or glycoproteins TNFα Tumor necrosis factor is a cytokine involved in systemic inflammation and is a member of a group of cytokines that stimulate the acute phase reaction. The formation of adipose tissue appears to be controlled by the adipose gene WDTC1 is a gene associated with obesity. Adipose tissue was first identified by the Swiss naturalist Conrad Gessner Konrad Gessner was a Swiss naturalist and bibliographer. His five-volume Historiae animalium (1551-1558) is considered the beginning of modern zoology, and the flowering plant genus Gesneria (Gesneriaceae) is named after him. This botanist is denoted by the author abbreviation Gesner when citing a botanical name in 1551.^[2]

Anatomical features

In humans, adipose tissue is located beneath the skin The skin is a soft outer covering of an animal, in particular a vertebrate. Other animal coverings such the arthropod exoskeleton or the seashell have different developmental origin, structure and chemical composition. The adjective cutaneous literally means "of the skin" . In mammals, the skin is the largest organ of the integumentary (subcutaneous fat 1. Hair Shaft 2. Stratum Corneum 3. Pigment Layer 4. Stratum Spinosum 5. Stratum Basale 6. Arrector Pili Muscle 7. Sebaceous Gland 8. Hair Follicle 9. Papilla of Hair 10. Nerve Fiber 11. Sweat Gland 12. Pacinian Corpuscle 13. Artery 14. Vein 15. Sensory Nerve ending 16. Dermal Papillary 17. Sweat Pore), around internal organs In biology and anatomy, an organ is a collection of tissues joined in structural unit to serve a common function (visceral fat In histology, adipose tissue or body fat or just fat is loose connective tissue composed of adipocytes. It is technically composed of roughly only 80% fat; fat in its solitary state exists in the liver and muscles. Adipose tissue is derived from lipoblasts. Its main role is to store energy in the form of fat, although it also cushions and), in bone marrow (yellow bone marrow Bone marrow is the flexible tissue found in the hollow interior of bones. In adults, marrow in large bones produces new blood cells. It constitutes 4% of total body weight, i.e. approximately 2.6 kg in adults) and in breast tissue. Adipose tissue is found in specific locations, which are referred to as 'adipose depots.' Adipose tissue contains several cell types, with the highest percentage of cells being adipocytes Adipocytes, also known as lipocytes and fat cells, are the cells that primarily compose adipose tissue, specialized in storing energy as fat, which contain fat droplets. Other cell types include fibroblasts A fibroblast is a type of cell that synthesizes the extracellular matrix and collagen, the structural framework for animal tissues, and plays a critical role in wound healing. Fibroblasts are the most common cells of connective tissue in animals, macrophages Macrophages are white blood cells within tissues, produced by the differentiation of monocytes. Human macrophages are about 21 micrometres (0.00083 in) in diameter. Monocytes and macrophages are phagocytes, acting in both non-specific defense (innate immunity) as well as to help initiate specific defense mechanisms (adaptive immunity) of, and endothelial cells The endothelium is the thin layer of cells that line the interior surface of blood vessels, forming an interface between circulating blood in the lumen and the rest of the vessel wall. Endothelial cells line the entire circulatory system, from the heart to the smallest capillary. These cells reduce turbulence of the flow of blood allowing the. Adipose tissue contains many small blood vessels The blood vessels are the part of the circulatory system that transport blood throughout the body. There are three major types of blood vessels: the arteries, which carry the blood away from the heart; the capillaries, which enable the actual exchange of water and chemicals between the blood and the tissues; and the veins, which carry blood from. In the integumentary system The integumentary system is the organ system that protects the body from damage, comprising the skin and its appendages (including hair, scales, feathers, and nails). The integumentary system has a variety of functions; it may serve to waterproof, cushion and protect the deeper tissues, excrete wastes, regulate temperature and is the attachment, which includes the skin, it accumulates in the deepest level, the subcutaneous 1. Hair Shaft 2. Stratum Corneum 3. Pigment Layer 4. Stratum Spinosum 5. Stratum Basale 6. Arrector Pili Muscle 7. Sebaceous Gland 8. Hair Follicle 9. Papilla of Hair 10. Nerve Fiber 11. Sweat Gland 12. Pacinian Corpuscle 13. Artery 14. Vein 15. Sensory Nerve ending 16. Dermal Papillary 17. Sweat Pore layer, providing insulation from heat and cold. Around organs, it provides protective padding. However, its main function is to be a reserve of lipids, which can be burned to meet the energy needs of the body. Adipose depots in different parts of the body have different biochemical profiles.

Mice

In mice A mouse is a small mammal belonging to the order of rodents. The best known mouse species is the common house mouse (Mus musculus). It is also a popular pet. In some places, certain kinds of field mice are also common. This rodent is eaten by large birds such as hawks and eagles. They are known to invade homes for food and occasionally shelter, there are eight major adipose depots, four of which are within the abdominal cavity The abdominal cavity is the body cavity of the human body that holds the bulk of the viscera. It is located below (or inferior to) the thoracic cavity, and above the pelvic cavity. It is a part of the abdominopelvic cavity: The paired gonadal depots are attached to the uterus The uterus (from Latin "uterus" , plural uteruses or uteri) or womb is a major female hormone-responsive reproductive sex organ of most mammals including humans. One end, the cervix, opens into the vagina, while the other is connected to one or both fallopian tubes, depending on the species. It is within the uterus that the fetus and ovaries The ovary is an ovum-producing reproductive organ, often found in pairs as part of the vertebrate female reproductive system. Ovaries in females are homologous to testes in males, in that they are both gonads and endocrine glands in females and the epididymis The epididymis is part of the male reproductive system and is present in all male amniotes. It is a narrow, tightly-coiled tube connecting the efferent ducts from the rear of each testicle to its vas deferens. A similar, but probably non-homologous, structure is found in cartilaginous fishes and testes in males; the paired retroperitoneal depots are found along the dorsal In anatomy, the dorsum is the upper side of animals that typically run, fly, or swim in a horizontal position, and the back side of animals that walk upright. In vertebrates the dorsum contains the backbone. The term dorsal refers to anatomical structures that are either situated toward or grow off that side of an animal. The opposite side of the wall of the abdomen, surrounding the kidney, and, when massive, extend into the pelvis. The mesenteric depot forms a glue-like web that supports the intestines In human anatomy, the intestine is the segment of the alimentary canal extending from the stomach to the anus and, in humans and other mammals, consists of two segments, the small intestine and the large intestine. In humans, the small intestine is further subdivided into the duodenum, jejunum and ileum while the large intestine is subdivided into, and the omental depot, which originates near the stomach In some animals, including vertebrates, echinoderms, insects and molluscs, the stomach is a muscular, hollow, dilated part of the alimentary canal which functions as the primary organ of the digestive tract. It is involved in the second phase of digestion, following mastication (chewing). The stomach is located between the esophagus and the small and spleen The spleen is an organ found in virtually all vertebrate animals with important roles in regard to red blood cells and the immune system. In humans, it is located in the left upper quadrant of the abdomen. It removes old red blood cells and holds a reserve of blood in case of hemorrhagic shock while also recycling iron. It synthesizes antibodies, and, when massive, extends into the ventral abdomen. Both the mesenteric and omental depots incorporate much lymphoid tissue The lymphatic system in vertebrates is a network of conduits that carry a clear fluid called lymph. It also includes the lymphoid tissue through which the lymph travels. Lymphoid tissue is found in many organs, particularly the lymph nodes, and in the lymphoid follicles associated with the digestive system such as the tonsils. The system also as lymph nodes and milky spots, respectively. The two superficial depots are the paired inguinal depots, which are found anterior to the upper segment of the hind limbs (underneath the skin) and the subscapular depots, paired medial mixtures of brown adipose tissue adjacent to regions of white adipose tissue, which are found under the skin The skin is a soft outer covering of an animal, in particular a vertebrate. Other animal coverings such the arthropod exoskeleton or the seashell have different developmental origin, structure and chemical composition. The adjective cutaneous literally means "of the skin" . In mammals, the skin is the largest organ of the integumentary between the dorsal crests of the scapulae. The layer of brown adipose tissue in this depot is often covered by a “frosting” of white adipose tissue; sometimes these two types of fat (brown and white) are hard to distinguish. The inguinal depots enclose the inguinal group of lymph nodes. Minor depots include the pericardial, which surrounds the heart, and the paired popliteal depots, between the major muscles Muscle is the contractile tissue of animals and is derived from the mesodermal layer of embryonic germ cells. Muscle cells contain contractile filaments that move past each other and change the size of the cell. They are classified as skeletal, cardiac, or smooth muscles. Their function is to produce force and cause motion. Muscles can cause behind the knees, each containing one large lymph node A lymph node is a small circular ball shape organ of the immune system, distributed widely throughout the body and linked by lymphatic vessels. Lymph nodes are garrisons of B, T, and other immune cells. Lymph nodes are found all through the body, and act as filters or traps for foreign particles. They contain white blood cells that use oxygen to^[3]. Of all the depots in the mouse, the gonadal depots are the largest and the most easily dissected^[4], comprising about 30% of dissectible fat^[5].

Obesity

In a severely obese Obesity is a medical condition in which excess body fat has accumulated to the extent that it may have an adverse effect on health, leading to reduced life expectancy and/or increased health problems. Body mass index , a measurement which compares weight and height, defines people as overweight (pre-obese) when their BMI is between 25 kg/m2 and 30 person A person is any individual human being. The term people is the plural of "person" (along with the slightly rarer word "persons"); however, "people" may also be used as a singular to refer to an entire nation or ethnic group, excess adipose tissue hanging downward from the abdomen is referred to as a panniculus Panniculus is a medical term describing a dense layer of fatty tissue growth, consisting of subcutaneous fat in the lower abdominal area. It can be a result of obesity and can be mistaken for a tumor or hernia. Abdominal panniculus can be removed during abdominal panniculectomy, a type of abdominoplasty. A panniculus can also be the result of (or pannus Pannus is a medical term for a hanging flap of tissue. When involving the abdomen, it is called a panniculus and consists of skin, fat, and sometimes contents of the internal abdomen as part of a hernia. A pannus can be the result of loose hanging tissues after pregnancy or weight loss. It can also be the result of obesity. A pannus can come in). A panniculus complicates surgery of the morbidly obese. The panniculus may remain as a literal "apron of skin" if a severely obese person quickly loses large amounts of fat (a common result of gastric bypass surgery Gastric bypass procedures are any of a group of similar operations used to treat morbid obesity—the severe accumulation of excess weight as fatty tissue—and the health problems (comorbidities) it causes. Bariatric surgery is the term encompassing all of the surgical treatments for morbid obesity, not just gastric bypasses, which make up only). This condition cannot be effectively corrected through diet and exercise alone, as the panniculus consists of adipocytes and other supporting cell types shrunken to their minimum volume and diameter. Reconstructive surgery is one method of treatment.

Abdominal fat

Visceral fat or abdominal fat^[6] also known as organ fat or intra-abdominal fat, is located inside the abdominal cavity, packed in between internal organs and torso, as opposed to subcutaneous fat, which is found underneath the skin, and intramuscular fat, which is found interspersed in skeletal muscle. Fat in the lower body, as in thighs and buttocks, is subcutaneous, whereas fat in the abdomen is mostly visceral.^[7] This is composed of several adipose depots including mesenteric, epididymal white adipose tissue (EWAT) and perirenal depots.

An excess of visceral fat is known as central obesity, or "belly fat", in which the abdomen protrudes excessively. There is a strong correlation between central obesity and cardiovascular disease.^[8]

Female sex hormone causes fat to be stored in the buttocks, thighs, and hips in women.^[9][10] Men are more likely to have fat stored in the belly due to sex hormone differences. When women reach menopause and the estrogen produced by ovaries declines, fat migrates from their buttocks, hips and thighs to their waists;^[11] later fat is stored in the belly.^[12]

Green tea catechins consumption enhances exercise-induced changes in abdominal fat.^[13]

High intensity exercise more effectively reduces total abdominal fat.^[14][15]

At least 10 METs x hours per week in aerobic exercise is required for visceral fat reduction.^[16]

Physiology

Free fatty acid is liberated from lipoproteins by lipoprotein lipase (LPL) and enters the adipocyte, where it is reassembled into triglycerides by esterifying it onto glycerol. Human fat tissue contains about 87% lipids.

In humans, lipolysis is controlled through the balanced control of lipolytic B-adrenergic receptors and a2A-adrenergic receptor-mediated antilipolysis.

Fat is not laid down when there is a surplus available and stored passively until it is needed; rather it is constantly being stored in and released from each cell.

Fat cells have an important physiological role in maintaining triglyceride and free fatty acid levels, as well as determining insulin resistance. Abdominal fat has a different metabolic profile—being more prone to induce insulin resistance. This explains to a large degree why central obesity is a marker of impaired glucose tolerance and is an independent risk factor for cardiovascular disease (even in the absence of diabetes mellitus and hypertension).^[17] Studies of female monkeys at Wake Forest University (2009) discovered that individuals suffering from higher stress have higher levels of visceral fat in their bodies. This suggests a possible cause-and-effect link between the two, wherein stress promotes the accumulation of visceral fat, which in turn causes hormonal and metabolic changes that contribute to heart disease and other health problems.^[18]

Recent advances in biotechnology have allowed for the harvesting of adult stem cells from adipose tissue, allowing stimulation of tissue regrowth using a patient's own cells. The use of a patient's own cells reduces the chance of tissue rejection and avoids the ethical issues associated with the use of human embryonic stem cells.

Adipose tissue is the greatest peripheral source of aromatase in both males and females contributing to the production of estradiol.

Adipose derived hormones include:

• Adiponectin
• Resistin
• Angiotensin
• Plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 (PAI-1)
• TNFα
• IL-6
• Leptin
• Estradiol (E2)

Adipose tissues also secrete a type of cytokines (cell-to-cell signalling proteins) called adipokines (adipocytokines) which play a role in obesity-associated complications.

Brown fat

A specialised form of adipose tissue in humans, most rodents and small mammals, and some hibernating animals, is brown fat or brown adipose tissue. It is located mainly around the neck and large blood vessels of the thorax. This specialised tissue can generate heat by "uncoupling" the respiratory chain of oxidative phosphorylation within mitochondria. The process of uncoupling means that, when protons transit down the electrochemical gradient across the inner mitochondrial membrane, the energy from this process is released as heat rather than being used to generate ATP. This thermogenic process may be vital in neonates exposed to the cold, who then require this thermogenesis to keep warm as they are unable to shiver, or take other actions to keep themselves warm.^[19]

Attempts to stimulate this process pharmacologically have so far been unsuccessful, but might in the future be a target of weight loss therapy.

Until recently, it was thought that brown adipose tissue was limited to infants in humans, but research now identifies that 20-80% of adults might also have brown adipose tissue.^[20]

Genetics

In 2007, researchers isolated the adipose gene, which, it is postulated, serves to keep animals lean during times of plenty. Increased adipose gene activity was associated with slimmer individuals.^[21]

Physical properties

Adipose tissue has a density of ~0.9 g/ml ^[22] [0.9 kg/l]. Thus, a person with much adipose tissue will float more easily than a person with a lot of muscular tissue, since muscular tissue has a density of 1.06 g/ml^[22] [1.06 kg/l].

Cultural and social role

Excess adipose tissue on a human can lead to medical problems. For a discussion of the aesthetic and medical significance of body shape, see dieting and obesity.

Body fat meter

A body fat meter is a widely available tool used to measure the percentage of fat in the human body. Different meters use various methods to determine the body fat to weight ratio. They tend to under-read body fat percentage.^[23]

In contrast with clinical tools, one relatively inexpensive type of body fat meter uses the principle of bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA) to determine an individual's body fat percentage. To achieve this, the meter passes a small, harmless, electric current through the body and measures the resistance, then uses information on the person's weight, height, age, and sex, to calculate an approximate value for the person's body fat percentage. The calculation measures the total volume of water in the body (lean tissue and muscle contain a higher percentage of water than fat), and estimates the percentage of fat based on this information. The result can fluctuate several percent depending on what one has eaten and how much water one has consumed prior to the analysis.

Additional images

See also

• Apelin
• Bioelectrical impedance analysis: a method to measure body fat percentage.
• Body fat percentage
• Cellulite
• Obesity
• Steatosis (Also called fatty change, fatty degeneration or adipose degeneration).
• Stem Cells
• Subcutaneous fat
• Adipose differentiation-related protein
• Adiposopathy

References

1. ^ Kershaw EE, Flier JS (2004). "Adipose tissue as an endocrine organ". J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 89 (6): 2548–56. doi:10.1210/jc.2004-0395. PMID 15181022.
2. ^ Cannon B, Nedergaard J. (2008). Developmental biology: Neither fat nor flesh. Nature. Aug 21;454(7207):947-8. PubMed
3. ^ Pond, Caroline M. (1998). The Fats of Life. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521635772.
4. ^ Cinti, S (July 2005). "The adipose organ". Prostaglandins, leukotrienes, and essential fatty acids (Elsevier Science) 73 (0952-3278): 9–15. doi:10.1016/j.plefa.2005.04.010. PMID 15936182.
5. ^ Bachmanov, Alexander; D. R. Reed, M. G. Tordoff, R. A. Price (March 2001). "Nutrient preference and diet-induced adiposity in C57BL/6ByJ and 129P3/J mice". Physiology & Behavior 72 (0031-9384): 603–613. doi:10.1016/S0031-9384(01)00412-7. PMID 11282146.
6. ^ Fat on the Inside: Looking Thin is Not Enough, By Fiona Haynes, About.com
7. ^ Abdominal fat and what to do about it, President & Fellows of Harvard College
8. ^ Yusuf S, Hawken S, Ounpuu S, Dans T, Avezum A, Lanas F, McQueen M, Budaj A, Pais P, Varigos J, Lisheng L, INTERHEART Study Investigators. (2004). "Effect of potentially modifiable risk factors associated with myocardial infarction in 52 countries (the INTERHEART study): case-control study.". Lancet 364 (9438): 937–52. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(04)17018-9. PMID 15364185.
9. ^ Estrogen causes fat to be stored around the pelvic region, hips, butt and thighs (pelvic region) [1]
10. ^ Waistline Worries: Turning Apples Back Into Pears
11. ^ Researchers think that the lack of estrogen at menopause play a role in driving our fat northward [2]
12. ^ Abdominal fat and what to do about it
13. ^ Maki, K. C.; Reeves, M. S.; Farmer, M.; Yasunaga, K.; Matsuo, N.; Katsuragi, Y.; Komikado, M.; Tokimitsu, I. et al. (2009). "Green tea catechin consumption enhances exercise-induced abdominal fat loss in overweight and obese adults". The Journal of nutrition 139 (2): 264–270. doi:10.3945/jn.108.098293. PMID 19074207.
14. ^ Irving; Davis, C.; Brock, D.; Weltman, J.; Swift, D.; Barrett, E.; Gaesser, G.; Weltman, A. (2008). "Effect of exercise training intensity on abdominal visceral fat and body composition". Medicine and science in sports and exercise 40 (11): 1863–1872. doi:10.1249/MSS.0b013e3181801d40. PMID 18845966.
15. ^ Coker; Williams, R.; Kortebein, P.; Sullivan, D.; Evans, W. (2009). "Influence of exercise intensity on abdominal fat and adiponectin in elderly adults". Metabolic syndrome and related disorders 7 (4): 363–368. doi:10.1089/met.2008.0060. PMID 19196080.
16. ^ Ohkawara, K.; Tanaka, S.; Miyachi, M.; Ishikawa-takata, K.; Tabata, I. (2007). "A dose-response relation between aerobic exercise and visceral fat reduction: systematic review of clinical trials". International journal of obesity (2005) 31 (12): 1786–1797. doi:10.1038/sj.ijo.0803683. PMID 17637702.
17. ^ Dhaliwal SS, Welborn TA. (May 2009) "Central obesity and multivariable cardiovascular risk as assessed by the Framingham prediction scores" Am J Cardiol. (American Journal of Cardiology) 103(10): pp. 1403-1407
18. ^ Alice Park (2009-08-08). "Fat-Bellied Monkeys Suggest Why Stress Sucks". Time. http://www.time.com/time/health/article/0,8599,1915237,00.html. Retrieved 2009-08-08.
19. ^ Himms-Hagen, J. (August 1990) "Brown adipose tissue thermogenesis: interdisciplinary studies" The FASEB Journal (Federation of American Societies for Experimental Biology) 4(11): pp. 2890-2898
20. ^ Nedergaard J, Bengtsson T, Cannon B. (2007). Unexpected evidence for active brown adipose tissue in adult humans. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab. 293:E444-52. PubMed
21. ^ Suh, Jae Myoung et al. (September 2007) "Adipose Is a Conserved Dosage-Sensitive Antiobesity Gene" Cell Metabolism 6(3): pp. 195-207 PubMed
22. ^ ^{a b} Google Answers: Muscle Density vs. Fat Density
23. ^ "Body fat scales review and compare". 10 January 2010. http://www.choice.com.au/Reviews-and-Tests/Food-and-Health/Diet-and-exercise/Weight-loss/Body-fat-scales-review-and-compare.aspx. Retrieved 11 January 2010.

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